The keyword mnemonic

The keyword method is a memory strategy where an item is memorised in relation to a similar-sounding word. It is potentially a very useful way to remember vocabulary in a foreign language, especially for words which have no obvious similarity to their equivalent in the learner's native language.

For example, to remember that carta means letter in Spanish, the word 'cart' could be used as a keyword. An image of a letter lying in a cart is then imagined, allowing the learner to derive the meaning from the mental image (more on this technique here).

The use of such mnemonics has generated  interest among teachers but is still a subject of debate among researchers - are they mere tricks which are quickly forgotten, or can they genuinely improve memory performance?

Image by Jack_Snell

Thomas and Wang (1996) argue that the imagery used in the technique results in fragile, easily-forgotten encodings.

However, Gruneberg (1998) rejects their criticism of the technique.  He argues that their research prevented immediate rehearsal of items. According to his own findings where immediate rehearsal was permitted, then the keyword technique resulted in superior recall.  And this is more similar to what language students will tend to do in real life.

References

Gruneberg, M.M. (1998). A commentary on criticism of the keyword method of learning foreign languages. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 12(5), 529-532.

Thomas, M.H. and Wang, A.Y. (1996). Learning by the keyword mnemonic: looking for long-term benefits. Journal of Experimental Psychology - Applied, 2(4), 330-342.

Correlation

A typical correlation study in Psychology uses a non-experimental source (e.g. a survey) to obtain data which show numerical values on two variables (e.g. IQ and extraversion).  Correlation means analysing the relationship between two such variables (which are called a study's 'co-variables'). 

A scattergram displays the relationship: for each participant, a point or cross is marked at the point on the graph where their scores on the co-variables meet:

The above example shows scores on two tasks.  If a person scores 14 on the first task and 6 on the second task, a dot is marked where the two points meet.  This is repeated for every participant, so that a pattern of dots emerges.

The line of best fit is a line drawn through this pattern to summarise the data.  A computer statistics programme will produce a line of best fit - it is very difficult to do it accurately by hand.  If the line is going upwards from left to right, there is a positive correlation.  If it is going downwards from left to right, there is a negative correlation.

A postive or negative correlation means that the variables do have a relationship, but cause and effect cannot be assumed, i.e. just because two things seem linked, it doesn't mean that one is causeing the other to change.  A classic example is that the time your alarm clock goes off is correlated with the time the sun comes up, but this doesn't mean that the sun is making your alarm clock go off, or that your alarm clock is making the sun rise!

Video clip on why correlation does not equal causation...

The strength of a correlation shows how closely linked the two variables are.  If there is a strong correlation, then the two co-variables are very closely linked.  The IQ of identical twins is strongly correlated.  A weak correlation means that there is some relationship but not a strong one.  Many things in Psychology are weakly correlated, including the number of major life stressors we experience and illness (Rahe et al., 1970).  Strength is shown with a number, a correlation coefficient between 1 and 0 (or betwen -1 and 0 for a negative correlation).  The further the number is from zero, the stronger the relationship.

Above all, remember that two things being correlated does not mean that there is a cause and effect relationship.  The media often misunderstand correlation data, mistaking a relationship for proof of cause and effect.  Often, strange relationships are shown, such as a study which found that using more abbreviations in text messages tend to be better readers (Plester et al., 2009)!  More often than not, there are additional variables playing a role.

Plester, B., Wood, C. and Joshi, P. (2009). Exploring the relationship between children's knowledge of text message abbreviations and school literacy outcomes. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 27 (1), 145-161.

Rahe, R.H., Mahan, J. and Arthur, R. (1970).  Prediction of near-future health-changes from subjects' preceding life changes.  Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 14, 401-406.

Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961)

Young children imitating aggression

Bandura and colleagues investigated imitation of aggression in pre-school children. Twenty-four children aged 3-5 were assigned to each of three conditions: one group observed aggressive adult models; a second observed inhibited non-aggressive models; while subjects in a control group had no prior exposure to the models. Half the subjects in the experimental conditions observed same-sex models and hall viewed models of the opposite sex.

Imitation of adults is a key factor in a child's developing behaviour.
Image by loomingy1

Children exposed to aggressive models reproduced a good deal of aggression resembling that of the models compared to the nonaggressive and control groups. Subjects in the aggressive condition also exhibited more aggression which was not directly imitated.

Imitation was found to be differentially influenced by the sex of the model with boys showing more aggression than girls following exposure to the male model, the difference being particularly marked on what Bandura and colleagues described as "highly masculine-typed behavior".

In discussion of the reasons behind aggression, Bandura disputes Freud's view that the aggressor identifies with a feared aggressive role-model in order to allay anxiety. In his work with adolescents (Bandura & Walters, 1959) it was found that parents of aggressive teenagers were fiecely punitive of aggression towards themselves, but encouraged aggression towards outsiders. Bandura suggests that anger is therefore simply displaced towards less threatening situations, however suggests that more research is needed in this area.

Bandura, A.. Ross, D. and Ross, S.A. (1961) Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575-582.

Great illusion

I love illusions - and they are also a great example of how our underlying expectations and assumptions (often unconscious ones) affect how we perceive the world.  This is one of my favourites - when people see it for the first time, they usually can't quite believe it:

It's a variation on the well-known 'chessboard in shadow' illusion - and shows the effect works in colour too. The 'yellow' square in the middle of the front face and the 'brown' one in the middle of the top face are the same colour. They are. They really are!

In some ways, examples of how our visual perception can be misled are simple enough to get your head around.  Perhaps it makes you wonder, though, how many of your other perceptions are distorted. Can you think of an argument, for example, when you and another were both convinced that you remembered something correctly, even though you disagreed?